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namely (other)

  • 1 namely

    adv а именно, то есть
    Синонимический ряд:
    1. specifically (other) particularly; specifically
    2. that is (other) clearly; i.e.; id est; in other words; in plain English; scilicet; that is; that is to say; to wit; videlicet; viz.

    English-Russian base dictionary > namely

  • 2 in other words

    English-Russian base dictionary > in other words

  • 3 are namely connected to each other, but they at no event are one and the same constructive node

    Универсальный англо-русский словарь > are namely connected to each other, but they at no event are one and the same constructive node

  • 4 to wit

    1. то есть; а именно
    2. а именно

    his only redeeming feature is his wit — единственное, что в нём подкупает, так это остроумие

    Синонимический ряд:
    1. namely (other) clearly; in other words; in plain English; namely; scilicet; videlicet
    2. that is (other) i.e.; id est; that is; that is to say; videlicet (Latin); viz.

    English-Russian base dictionary > to wit

  • 5 SE

    Multiple Entries: S.E.     SE     saber     se     ser     sé
    saber 1 sustantivo masculino knowledge;
    saber 2 ( conjugate saber) verbo transitivo 1
    a)nombre/dirección/canción to know;
    no lo sé I don't know; no sé cómo se llama I don't know his name; ¡yo qué sé! how (on earth) should I know! (colloq); que yo sepa as far as I know; sé algo de algo to know sth about sth; sé muy poco de ese tema I know very little about the subject; no sabe lo que dice he doesn't know what he's talking about sin que lo supiéramos without our knowing; ¡si yo lo hubiera sabido antes! if I had only known before!; ¡cómo iba yo a sé que …! how was I to know that …! 2 ( ser capaz de): ¿sabes nadar? can you swim?, do you know how to swim?; sabe escuchar she's a good listener; sabe hablar varios idiomas she can speak several languages verbo intransitivo
    ¿quién sabe? who knows?;
    sé de algo/algn to know of sth/sb; yo sé de un lugar donde te lo pueden arreglar I know of a place where you can get it fixed
    b) (tener noticias, enterarse):
    yo supe del accidente por la radio I heard about the accident on the radio
    a) ( tener sabor) (+ compl) to taste;
    sabe dulce/bien it tastes sweet/nice;
    sé a algo to taste of sth; no sabe a nada it doesn't taste of anything; sabe a podrido it tastes rotten
    b) ( causar cierta impresión): me sabe mal or no me sabe bien tener que decírselo I don't like having to tell him
    saberse verbo pronominal ( enf) ‹lección/poema to know
    se pron pers 1 seguido de otro pronombre: sustituyendo a
    le, les: ya sé lo he dicho ( a él) I've already told him;
    ( a ella) I've already told her; (a usted, ustedes) I've already told you; ( a ellos) I've already told them; 2 ( en verbos pronominales):
    ¿no sé arrepienten? [ellos/ellas] aren't they sorry?;
    [ ustedes] aren't you sorry?; sé secó/secaron ( refl) he dried himself/they dried themselves; sé secó el pelo ( refl) she dried her hair; sé hizo un vestido ( refl) she made herself a dress; ( caus) she had a dress made; sé lo comió todo ( enf) he ate it all 3
    a) ( voz pasiva):
    sé oyeron unos gritos there were shouts, I (o we etc) heard some shouts;
    sé publicó el año pasado it was published last year
    b) ( impersonal):
    sé castigará a los culpables those responsible will be punished
    c) (en normas, instrucciones):
    ¿cómo sé escribe tu nombre? how is your name spelled?, how do you spell your name?;
    sé pica la cebolla bien menuda chop the onion finely
    ser ( conjugate ser) cópula 1 ( seguido de adjetivos) to be
    ser expresses identity or nature as opposed to condition or state, which is normally conveyed by estar. The examples given below should be contrasted with those to be found in estar 1 cópula 1 es bajo/muy callado he's short/very quiet;
    es sorda de nacimiento she was born deaf; es inglés/católico he's English/(a) Catholic; era cierto it was true; sé bueno, estate quieto be a good boy and keep still; que seas muy feliz I hope you'll be very happy; (+ me/te/le etc) ver tb imposible, difícil etc 2 ( hablando de estado civil) to be; es viuda she's a widow; ver tb estar 1 cópula 2 3 (seguido de nombre, pronombre) to be; ábreme, soy yo open the door, it's me 4 (con predicado introducido por `de'): soy de Córdoba I'm from Cordoba; es de los vecinos it belongs to the neighbors, it's the neighbors'; no soy de aquí I'm not from around here 5 (hipótesis, futuro): ¿será cierto? can it be true? verbo intransitivo 1
    b) (liter) ( en cuentos):
    érase una vez … once upon a time there was …
    2
    a) (tener lugar, ocurrir):
    ¿dónde fue el accidente? where did the accident happen?
    ¿qué habrá sido de él? I wonder what happened to o what became of him;
    ¿qué es de Marisa? (fam) what's Marisa up to (these days)? (colloq); ¿qué va a ser de nosotros? what will become of us? 3 ( sumar):
    ¿cuánto es (todo)? how much is that (altogether)?;
    son 3.000 pesos that'll be o that's 3,000 pesos; somos diez en total there are ten of us altogether 4 (indicando finalidad, adecuación) sé para algo to be for sth; ( en locs)
    a no ser que (+ subj) unless;
    ¿cómo es eso? why is that?, how come? (colloq); como/cuando/donde sea: tengo que conseguir ese trabajo como sea I have to get that job no matter what; hazlo como sea, pero hazlo do it any way o however you want but get it done; el lunes o cuando sea next Monday or whenever; puedo dormir en el sillón o donde sea I can sleep in the armchair or wherever you like o anywhere you like; de ser así (frml) should this be so o the case (frml); ¡eso es! that's it!, that's right!; es que …: ¿es que no lo saben? do you mean to say they don't know?; es que no sé nadar the thing is I can't swim; lo que sea: cómete una manzana, o lo que sea have an apple or something; estoy dispuesta a hacer lo que sea I'm prepared to do whatever it takes; o sea: en febrero, o sea hace un mes in February, that is to say a month ago; o sea que no te interesa in other words, you're not interested; o sea que nunca lo descubriste so you never found out; (ya) sea …, (ya) sea … either …, or …; sea como sea at all costs; sea cuando sea whenever it is; sea donde sea no matter where; sea quien sea whoever it is; si no fuera/hubiera sido por … if it wasn't o weren't/hadn't been for … ( en el tiempo) to be;
    ¿qué fecha es hoy? what's the date today?, what's today's date;
    serían las cuatro cuando llegó it must have been (about) four (o'clock) when she arrived; ver tb v impers sé v impers to be; sé v aux ( en la voz pasiva) to be; fue construido en 1900 it was built in 1900 ■ sustantivo masculino 1
    a) ( ente) being;
    sé humano/vivo human/living being
    b) (individuo, persona):
    2 ( naturaleza):
    see
    saber, ser

    saber sustantivo masculino knowledge, learning, information
    saber
    I verbo transitivo
    1 (una cosa) to know: no sé su dirección, I don't know her address
    para que lo sepas, for your information
    que yo sepa, as far as I know
    2 (hacer algo) to know how to: no sabe nadar, he can't swim
    3 (capacidad, destreza) sabe dibujar muy bien, he knows how to draw really well
    4 (comportarse, reaccionar) can: no sabe aguantar una broma, she can't take a joke
    no sabe perder, he's a bad loser
    5 (tener conocimientos elevados sobre una materia) sabe mucho de música, she knows a lot about music
    6 (enterarse) to learn, find out: lo llamé en cuanto lo supe, I called him as soon as I heard about it
    7 (estar informado) sabía que te ibas a retrasar, he knew that you were going to be late
    8 (imaginar) no sabes qué frío hacía, you can't imagine how cold it was
    II verbo intransitivo
    1 (sobre una materia) to know [de, of]: sé de un restaurante buenísimo, I know of a very good restaurant
    2 (tener noticias) (de alguien por él mismo) to hear from sb (de alguien por otros) to have news of sb (de un asunto) to hear about sthg
    3 (tener sabor) to taste [a, of]: este guiso sabe a quemado, this stew tastes burnt
    4 (producir agrado o desagrado) to like, please: me supo mal que no viniera, it upset me that he didn't come Locuciones: el saber no ocupa lugar, you can never learn too much
    me ha sabido a poco, I couldn't get enough of it
    quién sabe, who knows
    vas a saber lo que es bueno, I'll show you what's what
    vete a saber, God knows
    a saber, namely
    se pron pers
    1 (reflexivo) 3ª pers sing (objeto directo) (a sí mismo) himself (a sí misma) herself: se cuida mucho, she takes good care of herself (un animal a sí mismo) itself (objeto indirecto) (a sí mismo) (for o to) himself (a sí misma) (for o to) herself (un animal a sí mismo) for o to itself: el león se lamía las heridas, the lion licked its wounds plural (objeto directo) (a sí mismos) themselves (indirecto) (for o to) themselves
    2 frml 2.ª pers sing (objeto directo) (a usted mismo) yourself plural (a ustedes mismos) yourselves: dejen de minusvalorarse, stop underestimating yourselves
    3 (recíproco) each other, one another: se adoran, they adore each other
    4 (impersonal) cualquiera se puede equivocar, anyone can make a mistake
    se puede ir en tren, you can go by train
    se prohíbe aparcar, parking is forbidden
    4 (pasiva) la casa se construyó en 1780, the house was built in 1780
    se pron pers
    1 (objeto indirecto) 3.ª persona sing (masculino) (to o for) him (femenino) (to o for) her (plural) (to o for) them: se lo dedicó a Carla, he dedicated it to Carla
    se lo deletreé, I spelt it for him
    se lo susurró al oído, he whispered it in her ear
    2 2.ª persona (a usted o ustedes) (to o for) you: no se lo reprocho, I don't reproach you
    ser
    I sustantivo masculino
    1 being: es un ser despreciable, he's despicable
    ser humano, human being
    ser vivo, living being
    2 (esencia) essence: eso forma parte de su ser, that is part of him
    II verbo intransitivo
    1 (cualidad) to be: eres muy modesto, you are very modest
    2 (fecha) to be: hoy es lunes, today is Monday
    ya es la una, it's one o'clock
    3 (cantidad) eran unos cincuenta, there were about fifty people (al pagar) ¿cuánto es?, how much is it?
    son doscientas, it is two hundred pesetas Mat dos y tres son cinco, two and three make five
    4 (causa) aquella mujer fue su ruina, that woman was his ruin
    5 (oficio) to be a(n): Elvira es enfermera, Elvira is a nurse
    6 (pertenencia) esto es mío, that's mine
    es de Pedro, it is Pedro's
    7 (afiliación) to belong: es del partido, he's a member of the party
    es un chico del curso superior, he is a boy from the higher year
    8 (origen) es de Málaga, she is from Málaga
    ¿de dónde es esta fruta? where does this fruit come from?
    9 (composición, material) to be made of: este jersey no es de lana, this sweater is not (made of) wool
    10 ser de, (afinidad, comparación) lo que hizo fue de tontos, what she did was a foolish thing
    11 (existir) Madrid ya no es lo que era, Madrid isn't what it used to be
    12 (suceder) ¿qué fue de ella?, what became of her?
    13 (tener lugar) to be: esta tarde es el entierro, the funeral is this evening 14 ser para, (finalidad) to be for: es para pelar patatas, it's for peeling potatoes (adecuación, aptitud) no es una película para niños, the film is not suitable for children
    esta vida no es para ti, this kind of life is not for you
    15 (efecto) era para llorar, it was painful
    es (como) para darle una bofetada, it makes me want to slap his face
    no es para tomárselo a broma, it is no joke
    16 (auxiliar en pasiva) to be: fuimos rescatados por la patrulla de la Cruz Roja, we were rescued by the Red Cross patrol
    17 ser de (+ infinitivo) era de esperar que se marchase, it was to be expected that she would leave Locuciones: a no ser que, unless
    como sea, anyhow
    de no ser por..., had it not been for
    es más, furthermore
    es que..., it's just that...
    lo que sea, whatever
    o sea, that is (to say)
    sea como sea, in any case o be that as it may
    ser de lo que no hay, to be the limit '' also found in these entries: Spanish: A - abalanzarse - abandonarse - abarcar - abaratarse - abastecimiento - abatirse - abogada - abogado - abrazarse - abuela - aburrida - aburrido - acabarse - acaramelada - acaramelado - acaso - acentuarse - acercarse - achacar - achantarse - achuchar - aclimatarse - acomodarse - acto - actual - acuerdo - acumularse - acusarse - adelantarse - adherirse - adivinarse - administración - admitir - adónde - adscribirse - afanarse - aferrarse - agachar - agarrar - aglomerarse - agradecer - ahorcarse - aire - alargarse - alejarse - alma - alquilar - alrededor - alta English: A - ablaze - abstain - accessible - acclaim - accomplished - account - account for - accustom - actual - actually - address - administration - admit - adrift - advance - advantage - adventure - advice - advise - after - after-sales - ago - agree - ahead - aid - alienate - alike - alive - all - almost - alone - already - also - alter - always - ambit - ambush - ammunition - anonymous - another - anticipate - antiquated - antisexist - antsy - applaud - approach - apt - archives - arguable
    SE
    tr[saʊɵ'iːst]
    (= southeast) SE
    ABBR
    = southeast SE
    * * *
    (= southeast) SE

    English-spanish dictionary > SE

  • 6 foreign words and phrases

    •• Начну с цитаты из книги Success with Words, выпущенной в 1983 году журналом Reader’s Digest: English is a hybrid language dependent on a multitude of borrowings from many sources for its enormous vocabulary and unique richness of connotation. В отличие от французов и русских, англичане и американцы не впадают в панику, когда их язык заимствует новое слово из французского, русского или любого другого языка, не борются «за чистоту родной речи». Автор книги English As A Global Language Дейвид Кристал пишет: English is a kind of vacuum cleaner of language – it sucks in vocabulary from any language it can get. Помимо тысяч и тысяч слов, полностью ассимилированных английским, немало и таких, которые по-прежнему ощущаются как иностранные, но тем не менее понятны любому культурному англосаксу. Иногда они пишутся курсивом, иногда никак не выделяются. В наших учебных заведениях их обычно «не проходят». Поэтому я решил собрать в отдельную словарную статью те из них, что наиболее, на мой взгляд, употребительны и заслуживают внимания в том числе и устного переводчика. Список, конечно, субъективный, но некоторое представление об «иностранных штучках», которые сплошь и рядом встречаются в письменных текстах и могут встретиться в устной речи, он дает.

    •• О транскрипции. Она во многом условна, ведь встречается самое разное произношение иностранных слов. Предлагаемые варианты не всегда идеальны с точки зрения языка происхождения, но их можно считать принятыми в речи образованных носителей английского языка.
    •• Начнем, как говорил Пушкин, ab ovo, то есть в данном случае с латыни. И хотя поэт давно сказал, что «латынь из моды вышла ныне», в англоязычном мире латынь – всюду. Кстати, обратим внимание, что в современном английском языке наметилась тенденция – произносить латинские слова и выражения в соответствии с правилами английского произношения. Например, bona fides (i произносится как в открытом слоге).
    •• ad hoc - вариантов перевода этого словосочетания очень много: специальный ( ad hoc committee в международных организациях – специальный комитет), специализированный, несистемный, для данного случая, особый, даже импровизированный. Характерно употребление этого слова в негативном, «критическом» значении. Пример из Webster’s Third New International Dictionary: a coordinated policy instead of ad hoc decisions. Нельзя, однако, согласиться с переводом, предлагаемым в Новом БАРСе, ad hoc hypothesis – произвольная (надуманная) гипотеза. Такое значение – чисто контекстуальное;
    •• ad hominem - чаще всего в словосочетании ad hominem arguments. Имеется в виду, что вместо разумных аргументов говорящий «переходит на личности»;
    •• a fortiori - тем более;
    •• a priori , a posteriori - в переводе эти выражения в общем-то не нуждаются. Кстати, в английской речи они встречаются не так часто, как в речи образованных русских. Произносятся примерно так же, как у нас. Означают в реальном употреблении что-то вроде на первый взгляд и задним числом;
    •• alma mater , alumna , alumnus - словосочетание alma mater хорошо известно у нас, а слово alumnus и все, что с ним связано, – гораздо меньше. В переводе с латыни alma mater вскармливающая мать, или просто кормилица. Смысл метафоры – университет дает человеку пищу для ума. Alumnus – воспитанник, ею вскормленный (женский род – alumna). Множественное число от мужского рода – alumni, от женского – alumnae. Американцы очень любят поговорить на эти темы, поддерживают связь с университетами, в которых они учились, через Alumni Associations – ассоциации выпускников и, что самое главное в Америке, оказывают своим университетам материальную помощь. Как писал А.П.Чехов своему брату, «если действительно хочешь кому-нибудь помочь, помоги материально»;
    •• bona fide - добросовестный, добросовестно. Часто употребляется и как существительное в форме bona fides – надежность. I wanted to prove my bona fides. – Я хотел доказать, что мне можно доверять. ...new democracies eager to assert their bona fides as members of the democratic community (Wall Street Journal). – ...новые демократии, которым не терпится доказать, что они достойны войти в сообщество демократических государств;
    •• caveat , caveat emptor - чаще всего употребляется лишь первое слово, в широком значении предостережения. Let me add one caveat означает примерно Только обязательно учтите... caveat emptor, то есть buyer beware означает, что магазин не дает каких-либо гарантий товара, он продается as is (т.е., возможно, с небольшими дефектами). На таких условиях продают, например, floor samples (образцы из демонстрационного зала) в магазинах мебели или аудио/видеотехники;
    •• cum laude - с отличием. Есть три степени отличия при окончании университета: cum laude, magna cum laude и summa cum laude. Третье – самое высокое отличие. Употребляется так: She graduated summa cum laude from Stanford;
    •• curriculum vitae (CV) - примерно то же самое, что résumé . По-русски – краткие биографические данные, сведения о прежних местах работы. Подробно о резюме см. в книге «Мир перевода-1» (изд-во «Р.Валент»);
    •• e pluribus unum - из множества – одно, единство в многообразии. Национальный лозунг США. Однако на долларовых купюрах все-таки другой лозунг – In God we trust;
    •• Ibid , ibidem - там же (в сносках, ссылках, дающихся в научных трудах, статьях);
    •• inter alia - помимо прочего, в том числе;
    •• mutatis mutandis - с учетом необходимых изменений;
    •• nolo contendere - то же самое, что и no contest. В американской судебной системе обвиняемый в ходе следствия или судебного заседания должен сделать заявление о своей виновности или невиновности (plea). Он должен выбрать между guilty, not guilty и nolo contendere, т.е. не оспариваю. В зависимости от того, насколько убедительно обвинение, обвиняемый (или его адвокат) может попытаться смягчить будущий приговор, признав или не оспаривая свою вину по менее жесткой статье уголовного кодекса (plead guilty/no contest to a lesser charge). Нередко это является предметом активных закулисных переговоров между обвинением и защитой (plea bargaining);
    •• per se - как таковой;
    •• prima facie - на первый взгляд. Употребляется в основном в юридической сфере: prima facie evidence – достаточно достоверные (для обвинения) доказательства;
    •• quid pro quo - как у нас иногда (в просторечии) говорят, дашь на дашь. Употребляется чаще всего в таких контекстах: What is the quid pro quo? – Что мы за это получим? (т.е. в обмен на нашу услугу, уступку). I am proposing a quid pro quo. – Предлагаю сделку (компромисс) / Предлагаю пойти навстречу друг другу;
    •• sine die - на неопределенный срок. Пример: to adjourn sine die – закрыть заседание, не назначая дату следующего;
    •• sine qua non - употребляется часто как сложное существительное: this is a sine qua non – это обязательное условие;
    •• sui generis - сам/само по себе;
    •• Несколько полезных выражений французского происхождения (мода на них не проходит, а иногда вспыхивает с еще большей силой, поэтому совсем не знающим французского стоит выучить хотя бы какой-то минимум):
    •• à la carte - по выбору из меню (в отличие от комплексного обеда – prix fixe dinner или в Америке, как ни странно, просто menu – dinner menu, lunch menu);
    •• amour-propre - самолюбие. Заполняет определенную лакуну в английском языке. Конечно, это понятие можно выразить различными способами, но существительного, сжато выражающего это понятие, нет ( self-esteem все-таки скорее чувство собственного достоинства);
    •• bête-noire - предмет ненависти. X is his bête-noire. – Он ненавидит такого-то (если сказать He hates X, то будет слабее: Он его терпеть не может);
    •• bon voyage - говорят не реже, чем have a good trip или have a safe trip. Счастливого пути!
    •• carte blanche - по-русски тоже иногда говорят карт-бланш, т.е. безусловные полномочия, разрешение на использование любых средств. Синоним – license;
    •• coup de grâce - завершающий (добивающий) удар. Не путать с контрольным выстрелом (finishing shot) из практики русских киллеров. Coup de grâce делается для того, чтобы прекратить мучения погибающего, а не «для верности»;
    •• déjà vu - для знающих французский американское произношение этого выражения звучит диковато, особенно , но в Англии и Америке его любят. Оно означает это не ново, все это уже было (см. интересный пример словоупотребления в статье bitter). Сейчас в моду вошло выражение been there, done that, примерно в том же значении;
    •• de rigueur - обязательный, требуемый этикетом или нормой. Заполняет лакуну в английском языке. Пример из журнала New Yorker:...the vaguely leftist attitudes that were de rigueur for sixties social scientists. – ...левизна, считавшаяся в шестидесятые годы обязательной для социологов. См. в русской части словаря слово обязательно;
    •• enfant terrible - несносный ребенок, «неудобный» человек;
    •• fait accompli - свершившийся факт. Иногда употребляют английский вариант established fact, но чаще – французский;
    •• faute de mieux - за неимением лучшего;
    •• faux pas - неудачный шаг, необдуманное решение (как правило, без катастрофических последствий);
    •• laisser-faire - см. статью liberal, liberalism, laissez-faire;
    •• nom de guerre , nom de plume - псевдоним (во втором случае относится к писателям);
    •• nouveau riche - нувориш, неожиданно разбогатевший человек;
    •• par excellence - в высшей степени. He is a gentleman par excellence. - Он – воплощение джентльменства (употребляется очень часто; синонимично слову ultimate в таком, например, контексте: He is the ultimate deal-maker);
    •• pièce de résistance - главное блюдо; в переносном смысле – главное событие;
    •• pied-à-terre - пристанище, «площадка», второй дом (часто небольшая квартира в городе у человека, имеющего основное жилье в другом месте);
    •• prêt-à-porter - готовое платье. В отличие от haute couture - одежда, сшитая в единственном экземпляре или в очень ограниченном количестве (так называемая « высокая мода») и made to order/measure (одежда, сшитая на заказ). Кстати, у последнего есть слегка устаревший, но по-прежнему встречающийся синоним bespoke (a bespoke suit);
    •• raison d’être - смысл (причина) существования; оправдание/обоснование чего-либо;
    •• roman à clef - произведение, в котором за персонажами легко угадываются реальные лица; «роман-намек»;
    •• tête-à-tête - один на один, лицом к лицу. В дипломатической практике употребляют также выражение one on one/one to one;
    •• tour de force - проявление силы, яркое проявление способностей. Часто говорится о блестящем выступлении музыканта, работе художника и т.п.
    •• Немецкие заимствования не так часты, как французские, но среди них есть довольно важные, которые нужно знать.
    •• - fest - не слово, а суффикс, который, как оказалось, легко сочетается с односложными английскими словами. Помню заголовок в газете Daily News после теледебатов двух кандидатов в президенты: A Slugfest . Это можно перевести как обмен ударами. Интересно, что этого слова как бы не существует – оно отсутствует даже в Новом БАРСе. Но вот свежий пример: Absent compelling national themes, Campaign ‘98 will be a race-by-race slugfest (Business Week). – Если не появится серьезных общенациональных тем, предвыборная кампания 1998 года выльется в жесткую борьбу за каждое место в Конгрессе. О двух людях, помирившихся после долгой ссоры, говорят: Their meeting was a lovefest . – Это были сплошные взаимные объятия. В смысловой основе этого суффикса сохранилось значение фестиваль, праздник. Отсюда, например, songfest - праздник песни;
    •• glitch - поломка, техническая неисправность, неожиданная трудность;
    •• katzenjammer - перепой, похмелье; какофония, неразбериха;
    •• kitsch - китч. В английском словоупотреблении относится не только к массовому псевдоискусству, но и разного рода барахлу (junk), которым переполнены магазины для туристов;
    •• spiel - словари предлагают довольно разнообразный набор переводов – болтовня, разглагольствование, заговаривание зубов, жалобы, реклама и т.д. В глубинном значении этого слова – смысловой компонент стандартности, назойливости: He gave me his usual spiel about investment opportunities in Thailand. – Он, как обычно, долго и нудно рассказывал мне о том, как выгодно можно вложить деньги в Таиланде;
    •• verboten - казалось бы, зачем это немецкое слово, когда в английском языке есть множество выражений, обозначающих запрет? Тут и banned, и prohibited, и taboo, и out of the question, и no-no. Но verboten выражает ироническое, скептическое отношение к запрету. Пример из Time: [Bob] says he took the pictures... never realizing it was verboten (в заметке о том, как имеющая скандальную славу фигуристка Тоня Хардинг продала право на фотографирование своей свадьбы бульварному журналу);
    •• weltanschauung - мировоззрение. Одно из немецких слов, которые нужно знать и не владеющим немецким языком;
    •• zeitgeist - дословно дух времени, в переносном смысле – модное, актуальное в данный момент, «у всех на устах». Вошло в моду в журналистике в 1990-е годы.
    •• Испанские слова и выражения проникали в английский язык несколькими волнами. Сейчас в США растет число эмигрантов из Латинской и Центральной Америки – или, как их называют в США, Hispanics. В Нью-Йорке, Хьюстоне, Лос-Анджелесе и других местах их скопления слова, приведенные ниже, понятны большинству людей.
    •• aficionado - любитель, болельщик;
    •• bodega - винный погребок, бар;
    •• chicano - американец мексиканского происхождения;
    •• desperado - псевдоиспанское слово: разбойник, сорвиголова, отчаянный/конченый человек;
    •• fiesta - после знаменитого романа Хемингуэя это слово и у нас в переводе не нуждается;
    •• hacienda - по-русски гасиенда. То же самое, что фазенда (см. известные сериалы);
    •• incommunicado : to hold someone incommunicado держать в изоляции. Тоже псевдоиспанский: в испанском языке это слово пишется с одним m;
    •• macho - имеет два значения: подчеркнуто мужественный (Al Pacino might be the original lovable macho – Boston Globe) и агрессивный, жесткий, как сказали бы сейчас – крутой (Khrushchev had to put on this big macho act – слова Ричарда Никсона);
    •• patio - внутренний дворик;
    •• pronto - мигом, немедленно;
    •• sierra - горы, горная местность. Интересно, что одна из крупнейших американских экологических организаций называется Sierra Club;
    •• taco , tortilla - в последние лет десять-пятнадцать мексиканская кухня вошла в моду в США, особенно в заведениях быстрого обслуживания (fast food restaurants). Особенно популярны тако – пирожки (tacos) и тортилья – лепешки (tortillas), сделанные из бездрожжевой кукурузной муки;
    •• vigilante - переводы, предлагаемые в Новом БАРСе (член «комитета бдительности») и в Oxford Russian Dictionary ( дружинник), следует признать неудачными. Типичный vigilante – герой многих фильмов с участием Чарлза Бронсона (настоящая фамилия – Buchinsky). Это человек, берущий закон в свои руки.
    •• Наконец, несколько примеров проникновения в английский язык (в основном, хотя и не только, в нью-йоркский его вариант) слов из языка идиш, на котором говорили многие иммигранты из Восточной Европы, появившиеся в Америке в первые десятилетия ХХ века. Сейчас этот язык исчезает (в Израиле говорят на иврите, осовремененном древнееврейском языке, в то время как идиш происходит от одного из диалектов верхненемецкого языка), но следы его остаются, разнообразя экспрессивные возможности американцев.
    •• bagel - мягкий бублик;
    •• chutzpah - нахальство, наглость. Заполняет лакуну в английской лексике (такие значения, как наглость, предельная степень самоуверенности, непросто выразить обычными средствами языка в сжатом виде);
    •• kibbutz - в Израиле что-то вроде колхоза. Говорят, не очень эффективно, но, как оказалось, жизнеспособно (пока, во всяком случае);
    •• kibitz - болтать, «трепаться» или давать «советы постороннего» (то же самое, что backseat driving – так говорят о советах, от которых может быть больше вреда, чем пользы). Не путать со следующим словом;
    •• kosher - кошерный (т.е. соответствующий традиционным для верующих евреев правилам приготовления пищи). В переносном смысле употребляется в значении приемлемый, соответствующий правилам. Not quite kosher. – Что-то тут нечисто;
    •• - nik - популярный, особенно лет двадцать назад, суффикс (в идиш он пришел из русского). Вспомним: beatnik, refusenik и т.п.;
    •• schlemiel - неудачник, человек, у которого все валится из рук;
    •• schlock - халтура;
    •• schmaltz , schmaltzy - дешевая сентиментальность; слащавый;
    •• schmuck - это довольно распространенное заимствование из идиш может содержать очень разный эмоциональный и оценочный заряд, от которого зависит перевод. Если, скажем, отец говорит сыну (любя и без зла) You little schmuck, то это, пожалуй, Ах ты, паршивец! А слова бизнесмена о недобросовестном партнере He’s a real schmuck. – Он просто мерзавец. Есть и еще одно, распространенное русское слово, которое подошло бы в обоих случаях, но для меня оно остается непечатным;
    •• shtick - обычно говорится о художественных или исполнительских способностях примерно на уровне нашей самодеятельности. After drinks, Bill did his impersonation shtick. – После коктейля Билл развлекал нас своими пародиями на знаменитостей.
    •• Забавное итальянское слово:
    •• cognoscenti - знатоки (употребляется в основном с ироническим оттенком, а не как книжное слово, как не совсем точно утверждается в Новом БАРСе). Пример из текущей публицистики: The couch cognoscenti will hardly notice; and they certainly won’t care (Chris Floyd). – Знатоки, часами сидящие у телевизоров, вряд ли заметят это – и наверняка не расстроятся;
    •• literati - скорее из латыни, чем из итальянского. Тоже ироничное, по-русски можно было бы сказать литературный бомонд. Отсюда придуманное слово glitterati - просто бомонд.
    •• * Известный преподаватель и переводчик, когда-то учивший меня на курсах переводчиков ООН, Никита Григорьевич Санников обратил мое внимание на то, что в соответствующей статье «Моего несистематического словаря» не хватает рекомендаций по переводу, в частности слов и выражений на латыни. Он разрешил мне воспользоваться классификацией и примерами, приведенными в его замечательной брошюре «Английское контрактное право», изданной, к сожалению, мизерным тиражом.
    •• Итак, возможны три основных варианта передачи латинских вкраплений: заимствование путем транслитерации, перевод наравне с исконными английскими словосочетаниями и перенос в русский текст на латинице.
    •• Первая группа немногочисленна:
    •• alma mater - альма-матер;
    •• de facto - де-факто;
    •• de jure - де-юре;
    •• modus vivendi - модус вивенди, и некоторые другие.
    •• Интересно, что в этом случае латинские словосочетания иногда приобретают в русском языке значения, отличные от буквального перевода исходного латинского оборота. Так, modus vivendi, согласно Merriam-Webster Dictionary Online: a feasible arrangement or practical compromise; especially: one that bypasses difficulties. Примерно то же самое и в русском языке. Alma mater, как и в русском языке, не «кормящая мать», а school, college, or university which one has attended or from which one has graduated (в английском есть и второе значение: the song or hymn of a school, college, or university).
    •• Гораздо многочисленнее категория оборотов, которые должны переводиться на русский так же, как и исконные английские слова. Это, во-первых, сокращения:
    •• A.D. ( anno Domini) - нашей эры;
    •• p.m. ( post meridium) – в зависимости от контекста переводится как <...> часов дня или вечера, встречается и старинное пополудни;
    •• e.g. ( exempli gratia, хотя читается по-английски: for instance/ example) - например;
    •• i.e. ( id est, читается that is) - то есть;
    •• viz. ( videlicet, читается namely) - а именно;
    •• cf. ( confer, читается compare) - ср. ( сравнить).
    •• Далее, обязательно переводятся на русский язык слова, которые являются общепринятым способом выражения определенных понятий или обозначения предметов и явлений (тот случай, когда русский язык удержался от заимствования, а английский – нет):
    •• corrigenda ( errata) - список опечаток;
    •• dramatis personae - действующие лица;
    •• exit ( exeunt) - уходит ( уходят) – ремарка в пьесах;
    •• per capita - на душу населения;
    •• per diem - суточные.
    •• Наконец, это обороты, которые получили широкое распространение как характерные для того или иного стиля синонимы английских словосочетаний:
    •• ad nauseam ( to a disgusting extent) - до тошноты;
    •• inter alia ( among other things) - в том числе, среди прочего;
    •• vice versa ( the other way round) - наоборот;
    •• per se ( of itself) - сам по себе, как таковой;
    •• sine die ( indefinitely) - на неопределенный срок.
    •• В чтении по-английски названий судебных дел нет твердых правил. Иногда это зависит от традиции, сложившейся в отношении того или иного известного дела. Например, Brown v./vs. (т.е. versus) the Board of Education – рассмотренное Верховным судом США дело, решение по которому положило конец сегрегации в американских школах, обычно читается как Brown and или against the Board of Education. Другое «рубежное» дело (решенное Судом в пользу разрешения абортов) – Roe v. Wade обычно читается как Roe versus (но иногда просто по первой букве – v.) Wade. В названиях дел первым всегда указывается истец ( plaintiff), затем – ответчик (defendant).
    •• Третья категория – слова, выражения и фразы, которые воспроизводятся в тексте перевода на латинице (ad referendum, pacta sunt servanda, rebus sic stantibus, prima facie), но это происходит в основном при переводе научных текстов, как правило, из области права. Перевод этих оборотов обычно не приводится, так как предполагается, что специалисту известно, о чем речь (хотя бы приблизительно). Тем, кто не хочет полагаться на приблизительное знание, советую обратиться к хорошему словарю. Самый полный из них – «Латинско-русский словарь юридических терминов и выражений» М. Гамзатова (подробнее о нем см. в Приложении).
    •• Заодно хотелось бы дать небольшое уточнение: в «Моем несистематическом словаре» sui generis предлагается переводить как сам по себе. Такой перевод иногда возможен, но более корректен вариант единственный в своем роде. На это обратил мое внимание коллега, работающий в Международном комитете Красного Креста, который (в своих английских и французских текстах) именует себя организацией sui generis, имея в виду, что он ни на кого не похож – это не межправительственная и не неправительственная организация. По-русски – организация, единственная в своем роде.

    English-Russian nonsystematic dictionary > foreign words and phrases

  • 7 i.e.

    Синонимический ряд:
    that is (other) id est; in other words; namely; that is; that is to say; to wit; videlicet; viz.

    English-Russian base dictionary > i.e.

  • 8 id est

    лат. то есть
    Синонимический ряд:
    that is (other) i.e.; in other words; namely; that is; that is to say; to wit; videlicet (Latin); viz.

    English-Russian base dictionary > id est

  • 9 scilicet

    adv лат. а именно; то есть
    Синонимический ряд:
    to wit (other) clearly; in other words; in plain English; namely; to wit; videlicet

    English-Russian base dictionary > scilicet

  • 10 that is

    phr cj вводит пояснения то есть; а именно

    the thing is … — всё дело в том …; суть дела состоит в том …

    Синонимический ряд:
    i.e. (other) i.e.; id est; in other words; namely; that is to say; to wit; videlicet (Latin); viz.

    English-Russian base dictionary > that is

  • 11 that is to say

    то есть; другими словами

    they say that … — говорят, что …

    men say that … — люди говорят, что …

    mind what I say — слушай, что я говорю

    Синонимический ряд:
    that is (other) i.e.; id est; in other words; namely; that is; to wit; videlicet (Latin); viz.

    English-Russian base dictionary > that is to say

  • 12 videlicet

    adv лат. а именно; то есть
    Синонимический ряд:
    that is (other) clearly; i.e.; id est; in other words; in plain English; namely; scilicet; that is; that is to say; to wit; viz.

    English-Russian base dictionary > videlicet

  • 13 Box Motions

    The box motion is an accessory to those power looms adapted for: the purpose of weaving cloths in which more than one colour or kind of weft is used. There are two classes of motions adopted, namely the circular box motion and the rising or drop box motion. The main feature of difference between the two styles is in the method of carrying the shuttles. The circular method has the shuttles arranged in series of cells revolving round a common axis. In the other style the boxes are arranged in shelf form, one above the other.

    Dictionary of the English textile terms > Box Motions

  • 14 Doups

    Special healds used in the manufacture of gauze and leno fabrics. A doup consists of an ordinary heald termed the " front standard " and a half heald with only one stave termed the " doup heald." The half heald may be at the bottom or the top. In the case of the bottom doup, the twine of the doup heald passes over the eye of the front standard and returns through it. The crossing thread is drawn through the loop so formed, and also through an additional heald termed the back standard. To form the cross-shed the whole of the doup is raised, namely, the front standard and half heald. To form the open shed, i.e., when the crossing thread is on the other side of the standard end, the back standard is lifted, the front standard heald is left down, but the half heald is lifted to allow the warp thread to cross to the other side of the standard warp end (see gauze cloth and design).

    Dictionary of the English textile terms > Doups

  • 15 Flax Fibre, Tow And By-Products

    FLAX FIBRE, TOW and BY-PRODUCTS
    Flax, Broken - Scutched flax which is less than 20-in. long and therefore unfit for hackling in the spinning mill. Flax, C.D. and T. - Graders' marks which denote the type of scutched flax: c (chaine) to represent warps, D (demi) to represent medium warps, and T (trame) to represent wefts. Flax, Green, or Natural - Scutched flax produced from de-seeded straw without any intermediate treatment such as retting. Flax, Line - The hackled flax produced by a hackling machine or hand hackling. A term sometimes erroneously applied to scutched flax. Flax, Retted - Scutched flax produced from straw which has been retted. Usually divided into three main classes, namely, water retted flax, dew retted flax, and chemically retted flax. Flax, Scutched - The product from the delivery end of a scutching machine or from scutching flax straw on a wheel. It consists of the long fibre strands in a parallel condition and substantially free from wood and other extraneous material. The yield of scutched flax is commonly expressed as stones (14-lb.) per acre, but in Ireland it is sometimes expressed as stones per peck of seed sown. The average yield per acre of scutched flax has varied according to year from about 20 stones per acre to 40 stones per acre, with occasional exceptional yields of 80 and 90 stones per acre. Grader, Flax - The man who places the scutched flaxes in their appropriate grades of quality by eye judgment and feel. Grades, Flax - Tank retted flaxes are graded from A through the alphabet in ascending order of value. Dam retted flaxes are graded from 1-7 in descending order of value. Dew retted flaxes are graded 0-6 in descending order of value. Grades, Tow - Green tow is graded 1-8 and then 9a, 9b, Z, Z2, and beater tow in descending order of value. Tank retted tow is graded I, II, III, 1, 2, 3, 3X, 3XXX, in descending order, whilst dam and dew retted tows are I, II, II, 1, 2, 3. Pluckings - The short, clean fibre produced at the end of the scutching machine where the operatives dress and square the pieces of flax ready for selection. In grading pluckings are classed as tow (q.v.). Root Ends, Straw - The broken-off roots which fall from the straw under the breaking rollers. Rug, Scutching - All the detritus which falls below the two compartments of the scutching machine after the shives have been shaken out of it, or the waste made when producing scutched flax on a wheel. It consists of partly scutched short straws, broken straws, weeds, and beater tow. It is classed as root end rug or top end rug, according to which end of the flax it comes from. Selection - The preliminary sorting of the scutched flax into main grades at the delivery end of the scutching machine. Shives - The short pieces of woody waste beaten from the straw during scutching. Tow - Any substantially clean but tossed and tangled flax fibre of less than scutched flax length. Tow Baling - The operation of making-up tow into bales. Tow, Beater - Short, fine, clean fibres which fall from the last third of the compartments during scutching. Tow, Inferior low grade (Green) - Green tow of a grade lower than 9a. Tow, Inferior low grade (Retted) - Retted tow of a grade lower than 3XXX. Tow, Machine, or Cast - Tow produced by the hackling machine. Tow, Rejected - Tow unsuitable for spinning on flax tow machinery. Tow, Rescutched - Two scutched on tow handles or a tow scutching machine. Tow, Rolled - The product from passing scutching rug through tow rollers and highspeed shaker. Tow, Rolled and Beaten - The product from passing scutching rug through tow rollers and beaters, and a high-speed shaker. The principal flax markets of the world are at Courtrai, Bruges, Ghent, Lokeren and Zele in Belgium; Rotterdam in Holland; Riga in Latvia; Leningrad, Pernau and Witebek in Russia; Douai and Flines in France; Newry, Rathfriland, Strabane, Ballymoney, Lisnaskea, Ballybay and Armagh in Ireland. Courtrai flax is the finest produced. It is uniform in fibre, strong, clean and of a good colour. Yarns up to 200's lea are spun from it. Irish flax comes next in spinning qualities from 90's to 120's lea are produced. As a warp yarn it is much preferred as the strength is greater than other types. Flemish flax is dark in colour, dryer than others, strong, and can be spun up to 120's lea. Dutch flax is clean, good colour and spins into yams up to 90's lea. Russian flax is coarser than the above types and is usually spun up to about 70's lea.

    Dictionary of the English textile terms > Flax Fibre, Tow And By-Products

  • 16 Caetano, Marcello José das Neves Alves

    (19061980)
       Marcello Caetano, as the last prime minister of the Estado Novo, was both the heir and successor of Antônio de Oliveira Salazar. In a sense, Caetano was one of the founders and sustainers of this unusual regime and, at various crucial stages of its long life, Caetano's contribution was as important as Salazar's.
       Born in Lisbon in 1906 to a middle-class family, Caetano was a member of the student generation that rebelled against the unstable parliamentary First Republic and sought answers to Portugal's legion of troubles in conservative ideologies such as integralism, Catholic reformism, and the Italian Fascist model. One of the most brilliant students at the University of Lisbon's Law School, Caetano soon became directly involved in government service in various ministries, including Salazar's Ministry of Finance. When Caetano was not teaching full-time at the law school in Lisbon and influencing new generations of students who became critical of the regime he helped construct, Caetano was in important government posts and working on challenging assignments. In the 1930s, he participated in reforms in the Ministry of Finance, in the writing of the 1933 Constitution, in the formation of the new civil code, of which he was in part the author, and in the construction of corporativism, which sought to control labor-management relations and other aspects of social engineering. In a regime largely directed by academics from the law faculties of Coimbra University and the University of Lisbon, Caetano was the leading expert on constitutional law, administrative law, political science, and colonial law. A prolific writer as both a political scientist and historian, Caetano was the author of the standard political science, administrative law, and history of law textbooks, works that remained in print and in use among students long after his exile and death.
       After his apprenticeship service in a number of ministries, Caetano rose steadily in the system. At age 38, he was named minister for the colonies (1944 47), and unlike many predecessors, he "went to see for himself" and made important research visits to Portugal's African territories. In 1955-58, Caetano served in the number-three position in the regime in the Ministry of the Presidency of the Council (premier's office); he left office for full-time academic work in part because of his disagreements with Salazar and others on regime policy and failures to reform at the desired pace. In 1956 and 1957, Caetano briefly served as interim minister of communications and of foreign affairs.
       Caetano's opportunity to take Salazar's place and to challenge even more conservative forces in the system came in the 1960s. Portugal's most prominent law professor had a public falling out with the regime in March 1962, when he resigned as rector of Lisbon University following a clash between rebellious students and the PIDE, the political police. When students opposing the regime organized strikes on the University of Lisbon campus, Caetano resigned his rectorship after the police invaded the campus and beat and arrested some students, without asking permission to enter university premises from university authorities.
       When Salazar became incapacitated in September 1968, President Américo Tomás named Caetano prime minister. His tasks were formidable: in the midst of remarkable economic growth in Portugal, continued heavy immigration of Portuguese to France and other countries, and the costly colonial wars in three African colonies, namely Angola, Guinea- Bissau, and Mozambique, the regime struggled to engineer essential social and political reforms, win the wars in Africa, and move toward meaningful political reforms. Caetano supported moderately important reforms in his first two years in office (1968-70), as well as the drafting of constitutional revisions in 1971 that allowed a slight liberalization of the Dictatorship, gave the opposition more room for activity, and decentrali zed authority in the overseas provinces (colonies). Always aware of the complexity of Portugal's colonial problems and of the ongoing wars, Caetano made several visits to Africa as premier, and he sought to implement reforms in social and economic affairs while maintaining the expensive, divisive military effort, Portugal's largest armed forces mobilization in her history.
       Opposed by intransigent right-wing forces in various sectors in both Portugal and Africa, Caetano's modest "opening" of 1968-70 soon narrowed. Conservative forces in the military, police, civil service, and private sectors opposed key political reforms, including greater democratization, while pursuing the military solution to the African crisis and personal wealth. A significant perspective on Caetano's failed program of reforms, which could not prevent the advent of a creeping revolution in society, is a key development in the 1961-74 era of colonial wars: despite Lisbon's efforts, the greater part of Portuguese emigration and capital investment during this period were directed not to the African colonies but to Europe, North America, and Brazil.
       Prime Minister Caetano, discouraged by events and by opposition to his reforms from the so-called "Rheumatic Brigade" of superannuated regime loyalists, attempted to resign his office, but President Américo Tomás convinced him to remain. The publication and public reception of African hero General Antônio Spinola's best-selling book Portugal e Futuro (Portugal and the Future) in February 1974 convinced the surprised Caetano that a coup and revolution were imminent. When the virtually bloodless, smoothly operating military coup was successful in what became known as the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Caetano surrendered to the Armed Forces Movement in Lisbon and was flown to Madeira Island and later to exile in Brazil, where he remained for the rest of his life. In his Brazilian exile, Caetano was active writing important memoirs and histories of the Estado Novo from his vantage point, teaching law at a private university in Rio de Janeiro, and carrying on a lively correspondence with persons in Portugal. He died at age 74, in 1980, in Brazil.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Caetano, Marcello José das Neves Alves

  • 17 Burgi, Jost

    SUBJECT AREA: Horology
    [br]
    b. 28 February 1552 Lichtensteig, Switzerland
    d. 31 January 1632 Kassel, Germany
    [br]
    Swiss clockmaker and mathematician who invented the remontoire and the cross-beat escapement, also responsible for the use of exponential notation and the calculation of tables of anti-logarithms.
    [br]
    Burgi entered the service of Duke William IV of Hesse in 1579 as Court Clockmaker, although he also assisted William with his astronomical observations. In 1584 he invented the cross-beat escapement which increased the accuracy of spring-driven clocks by two orders of magnitude. During the last years of the century he also worked on the development of geometrical and astronomical instruments for the Royal Observatory at Kassel.
    On the death of Duke Wilhelm in 1603, and with news of his skills having reached the Holy Roman Emperor Rudolph II, in 1604 he went to Prague to become Imperial Watchmaker and to assist in the creation of a centre of scientific activity, subsequently becoming Assistant to the German astronomer, Johannes Kepler. No doubt this association led to an interest in mathematics and he made significant contributions to the concept of decimal fractions and the use of exponential notation, i.e. the use of a raised number to indicate powers of another number. It is likely that he was developing the idea of logarithms at the same time (or possibly even before) Napier, for in 1620 he made his greatest contribution to mathematics, science and, eventually, engineering, namely the publication of tables of anti-logarithms.
    At Prague he continued the series of accurate clocks and instruments for astronomical measurements that he had begun to produce at Kassel. At that period clocks were very poor timekeepers since the controller, the foliot or balance, had no natural period of oscillation and was consequently dependent on the driving force. Although the force of the driving weight was constant, irregularities occurred during the transmission of the power through the train as a result of the poor shape and quality of the gearing. Burgi attempted to overcome this directly by superb craftsmanship and indirectly by using a remontoire. This device was wound at regular intervals by the main driving force and fed the power directly to the escape wheel, which impulsed the foliot. He also introduced the crossbeat escapement (a variation on the verge), which consisted of two coupled foliots that swung in opposition to each other. According to contemporary evidence his clocks produced a remarkable improvement in timekeeping, being accurate to within a minute a day. This improvement was probably a result of the use of a remontoire and the high quality of the workmanship rather than a result of the cross-beat escapement, which did not have a natural period of oscillation.
    Burgi or Prague clocks, as they were known, were produced by very few other makers and were supplanted shortly afterwards by the intro-duction of the pendulum clock. Burgi also produced superb clockwork-driven celestial globes.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    Ennobled 1611.
    Bibliography
    Burgi only published one book, and that was concerned with mathematics.
    Further Reading
    L.von Mackensen, 1979, Die erste Sternwarte Europas mit ihren Instrumenten and Uhren—400 Jahre Jost Burgi in Kassel, Munich.
    K.Maurice and O.Mayr (eds), 1980, The Clockwork Universe, Washington, DC, pp. 87– 102.
    H.A.Lloyd, 1958, Some Outstanding Clocks Over 700 Years, 1250–1950, London. E.T.Bell, 1937, Men of Mathematics, London: Victor Gollancz.
    See also: Briggs, Henry
    KF / DV

    Biographical history of technology > Burgi, Jost

  • 18 Hertz, Heinrich Rudolph

    [br]
    b. 22 February 1857 Hamburg, Germany
    d. 1 January 1894 Bonn, Germany
    [br]
    German physicist who was reputedly the first person to transmit and receive radio waves.
    [br]
    At the age of 17 Hertz entered the Gelehrtenschule of the Johaneums in Hamburg, but he left the following year to obtain practical experience for a year with a firm of engineers in Frankfurt am Main. He then spent six months at the Dresden Technical High School, followed by year of military service in Berlin. At this point he decided to switch from engineering to physics, and after a year in Munich he studied physics under Helmholtz at the University of Berlin, gaining his PhD with high honours in 1880. From 1883 to 1885 he was a privat-dozent at Kiel, during which time he studied the electromagnetic theory of James Clerk Maxwell. In 1885 he succeeded to the Chair in Physics at Karlsruhe Technical High School. There, in 1887, he constructed a rudimentary transmitter consisting of two 30 cm (12 in.) rods with metal balls separated by a 7.5 mm (0.3 in.) gap at the inner ends and metallic plates at the outer ends, the whole assembly being mounted at the focus of a large parabolic metal mirror and the two rods being connected to an induction coil. At the other side of his laboratory he placed a 70 cm (27½ in.) diameter wire loop with a similar air gap at the focus of a second metal mirror. When the induction coil was made to create a spark across the transmitter air gap, he found that a spark also occurred at the "receiver". By a series of experiments he was not only able to show that the invisible waves travelled in straight lines and were reflected by the parabolic mirrors, but also that the vibrations could be refracted like visible light and had a similar wavelength. By this first transmission and reception of radio waves he thus confirmed the theoretical predictions made by Maxwell some twenty years earlier. It was probably in his experiments with this apparatus in 1887 that Hertz also observed that the voltage at which a spark was able to jump a gap was significantly reduced by the presence of ultraviolet light. This so-called photoelectric effect was subsequently placed on a theoretical basis by Albert Einstein in 1905. In 1889 he became Professor of Physics at the University of Bonn, where he continued to investigate the nature of electric discharges in gases at low pressure until his death after a long and painful illness. In recognition of his measurement of radio and other waves, the international unit of frequency of an oscillatory wave, the cycle per second, is now universally known as the Hertz.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    Royal Society Rumford Medal 1890.
    Bibliography
    Much of Hertz's work, including his 1890 paper "On the fundamental equations of electrodynamics for bodies at rest", is recorded in three collections of his papers which are available in English translations by D.E.Jones et al., namely Electric Waves (1893), Miscellaneous Papers (1896) and Principles of Mechanics (1899).
    Further Reading
    J.G.O'Hara and W.Pricha, 1987, Hertz and the Maxwellians, London: Peter Peregrinus. J.Hertz, 1977, Heinrich Hertz, Memoirs, Letters and Diaries, San Francisco: San Francisco Press.
    KF

    Biographical history of technology > Hertz, Heinrich Rudolph

  • 19 Cognitive Science

       The basic idea of cognitive science is that intelligent beings are semantic engines-in other words, automatic formal systems with interpretations under which they consistently make sense.... [P]eople and intelligent computers turn out to be merely different manifestations of the same underlying phenomenon. (Haugeland, 1981b, p. 31)
       2) Experimental Psychology, Theoretical Linguistics, and Computational Simulation of Cognitive Processes Are All Components of Cognitive Science
       I went away from the Symposium with a strong conviction, more intuitive than rational, that human experimental psychology, theoretical linguistics, and computer simulation of cognitive processes were all pieces of a larger whole, and that the future would see progressive elaboration and coordination of their shared concerns.... I have been working toward a cognitive science for about twenty years beginning before I knew what to call it. (G. A. Miller, 1979, p. 9)
        Cognitive Science studies the nature of cognition in human beings, other animals, and inanimate machines (if such a thing is possible). While computers are helpful within cognitive science, they are not essential to its being. A science of cognition could still be pursued even without these machines.
        Computer Science studies various kinds of problems and the use of computers to solve them, without concern for the means by which we humans might otherwise resolve them. There could be no computer science if there were no machines of this kind, because they are indispensable to its being. Artificial Intelligence is a special branch of computer science that investigates the extent to which the mental powers of human beings can be captured by means of machines.
       There could be cognitive science without artificial intelligence but there could be no artificial intelligence without cognitive science. One final caveat: In the case of an emerging new discipline such as cognitive science there is an almost irresistible temptation to identify the discipline itself (as a field of inquiry) with one of the theories that inspired it (such as the computational conception...). This, however, is a mistake. The field of inquiry (or "domain") stands to specific theories as questions stand to possible answers. The computational conception should properly be viewed as a research program in cognitive science, where "research programs" are answers that continue to attract followers. (Fetzer, 1996, pp. xvi-xvii)
       What is the nature of knowledge and how is this knowledge used? These questions lie at the core of both psychology and artificial intelligence.
       The psychologist who studies "knowledge systems" wants to know how concepts are structured in the human mind, how such concepts develop, and how they are used in understanding and behavior. The artificial intelligence researcher wants to know how to program a computer so that it can understand and interact with the outside world. The two orientations intersect when the psychologist and the computer scientist agree that the best way to approach the problem of building an intelligent machine is to emulate the human conceptual mechanisms that deal with language.... The name "cognitive science" has been used to refer to this convergence of interests in psychology and artificial intelligence....
       This working partnership in "cognitive science" does not mean that psychologists and computer scientists are developing a single comprehensive theory in which people are no different from machines. Psychology and artificial intelligence have many points of difference in methods and goals.... We simply want to work on an important area of overlapping interest, namely a theory of knowledge systems. As it turns out, this overlap is substantial. For both people and machines, each in their own way, there is a serious problem in common of making sense out of what they hear, see, or are told about the world. The conceptual apparatus necessary to perform even a partial feat of understanding is formidable and fascinating. (Schank & Abelson, 1977, pp. 1-2)
       Within the last dozen years a general change in scientific outlook has occurred, consonant with the point of view represented here. One can date the change roughly from 1956: in psychology, by the appearance of Bruner, Goodnow, and Austin's Study of Thinking and George Miller's "The Magical Number Seven"; in linguistics, by Noam Chomsky's "Three Models of Language"; and in computer science, by our own paper on the Logic Theory Machine. (Newell & Simon, 1972, p. 4)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Cognitive Science

  • 20 Thinking

       But what then am I? A thing which thinks. What is a thing which thinks? It is a thing which doubts, understands, [conceives], affirms, denies, wills, refuses, which also imagines and feels. (Descartes, 1951, p. 153)
       I have been trying in all this to remove the temptation to think that there "must be" a mental process of thinking, hoping, wishing, believing, etc., independent of the process of expressing a thought, a hope, a wish, etc.... If we scrutinize the usages which we make of "thinking," "meaning," "wishing," etc., going through this process rids us of the temptation to look for a peculiar act of thinking, independent of the act of expressing our thoughts, and stowed away in some particular medium. (Wittgenstein, 1958, pp. 41-43)
       Analyse the proofs employed by the subject. If they do not go beyond observation of empirical correspondences, they can be fully explained in terms of concrete operations, and nothing would warrant our assuming that more complex thought mechanisms are operating. If, on the other hand, the subject interprets a given correspondence as the result of any one of several possible combinations, and this leads him to verify his hypotheses by observing their consequences, we know that propositional operations are involved. (Inhelder & Piaget, 1958, p. 279)
       In every age, philosophical thinking exploits some dominant concepts and makes its greatest headway in solving problems conceived in terms of them. The seventeenth- and eighteenth-century philosophers construed knowledge, knower, and known in terms of sense data and their association. Descartes' self-examination gave classical psychology the mind and its contents as a starting point. Locke set up sensory immediacy as the new criterion of the real... Hobbes provided the genetic method of building up complex ideas from simple ones... and, in another quarter, still true to the Hobbesian method, Pavlov built intellect out of conditioned reflexes and Loeb built life out of tropisms. (S. Langer, 1962, p. 54)
       Experiments on deductive reasoning show that subjects are influenced sufficiently by their experience for their reasoning to differ from that described by a purely deductive system, whilst experiments on inductive reasoning lead to the view that an understanding of the strategies used by adult subjects in attaining concepts involves reference to higher-order concepts of a logical and deductive nature. (Bolton, 1972, p. 154)
       There are now machines in the world that think, that learn and create. Moreover, their ability to do these things is going to increase rapidly until-in the visible future-the range of problems they can handle will be coextensive with the range to which the human mind has been applied. (Newell & Simon, quoted in Weizenbaum, 1976, p. 138)
       But how does it happen that thinking is sometimes accompanied by action and sometimes not, sometimes by motion, and sometimes not? It looks as if almost the same thing happens as in the case of reasoning and making inferences about unchanging objects. But in that case the end is a speculative proposition... whereas here the conclusion which results from the two premises is an action.... I need covering; a cloak is a covering. I need a cloak. What I need, I have to make; I need a cloak. I have to make a cloak. And the conclusion, the "I have to make a cloak," is an action. (Nussbaum, 1978, p. 40)
       It is well to remember that when philosophy emerged in Greece in the sixth century, B.C., it did not burst suddenly out of the Mediterranean blue. The development of societies of reasoning creatures-what we call civilization-had been a process to be measured not in thousands but in millions of years. Human beings became civilized as they became reasonable, and for an animal to begin to reason and to learn how to improve its reasoning is a long, slow process. So thinking had been going on for ages before Greece-slowly improving itself, uncovering the pitfalls to be avoided by forethought, endeavoring to weigh alternative sets of consequences intellectually. What happened in the sixth century, B.C., is that thinking turned round on itself; people began to think about thinking, and the momentous event, the culmination of the long process to that point, was in fact the birth of philosophy. (Lipman, Sharp & Oscanyan, 1980, p. xi)
       The way to look at thought is not to assume that there is a parallel thread of correlated affects or internal experiences that go with it in some regular way. It's not of course that people don't have internal experiences, of course they do; but that when you ask what is the state of mind of someone, say while he or she is performing a ritual, it's hard to believe that such experiences are the same for all people involved.... The thinking, and indeed the feeling in an odd sort of way, is really going on in public. They are really saying what they're saying, doing what they're doing, meaning what they're meaning. Thought is, in great part anyway, a public activity. (Geertz, quoted in J. Miller, 1983, pp. 202-203)
       Everything should be made as simple as possible, but not simpler. (Einstein, quoted in Minsky, 1986, p. 17)
       What, in effect, are the conditions for the construction of formal thought? The child must not only apply operations to objects-in other words, mentally execute possible actions on them-he must also "reflect" those operations in the absence of the objects which are replaced by pure propositions. Thus, "reflection" is thought raised to the second power. Concrete thinking is the representation of a possible action, and formal thinking is the representation of a representation of possible action.... It is not surprising, therefore, that the system of concrete operations must be completed during the last years of childhood before it can be "reflected" by formal operations. In terms of their function, formal operations do not differ from concrete operations except that they are applied to hypotheses or propositions [whose logic is] an abstract translation of the system of "inference" that governs concrete operations. (Piaget, quoted in Minsky, 1986, p. 237)
       [E]ven a human being today (hence, a fortiori, a remote ancestor of contemporary human beings) cannot easily or ordinarily maintain uninterrupted attention on a single problem for more than a few tens of seconds. Yet we work on problems that require vastly more time. The way we do that (as we can observe by watching ourselves) requires periods of mulling to be followed by periods of recapitulation, describing to ourselves what seems to have gone on during the mulling, leading to whatever intermediate results we have reached. This has an obvious function: namely, by rehearsing these interim results... we commit them to memory, for the immediate contents of the stream of consciousness are very quickly lost unless rehearsed.... Given language, we can describe to ourselves what seemed to occur during the mulling that led to a judgment, produce a rehearsable version of the reaching-a-judgment process, and commit that to long-term memory by in fact rehearsing it. (Margolis, 1987, p. 60)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Thinking

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